用戶:TongcyDai/沙盒/I
各語言最早紀錄列表
[編輯]本條目是按照該語言中已使用文本紀錄完整句子的大致時間排列的語言列表,其中不包括未破解或未經廣泛認可的文字及語言,也不包括僅由孤立單詞或名字組成的碑文。在大多數情況下,該語言實際使用(或書寫)的年代會比列表給出的時間早得多。
由於許多民族擁有口傳傳統、或是現有的文字是來自更早已佚失的手稿,書寫記錄不一定反映了當時的語言特徵,反而可能對應到的是其更早的語言階段,民間傳說和史詩的流傳更可能橫亙數個世紀之久。一個極端的例子是以吠陀梵語寫成的《梨俱吠陀》:其文本最早的部分可以追溯到公元前1500年左右[1] ,但目前已知最老的手稿大約在公元前1040年寫成[2]。相似地,阿維斯陀語的最早紀錄《伽薩》被認為是在公元前1000年之前創作的,而最古老的阿維斯陀語手稿可以追溯到公元13世紀。[3]
對於已知其前身的語言,這裏提供的日期遵循傳統術語???。 例如,古法語是逐漸從通俗拉丁語發展出來的,則列表中的斯特拉斯堡誓言(842年)被歸類為古法語最早的文本。
公元前1千紀以前
[編輯]書寫系統最早出現在公元3000年初的近東地區。在青銅時代的結束及字母系統的興起之前,該地區已被確認的語言非常有限:
東亞黃河流域在公元前2千年末,以古漢語為代表的漢藏語系也開始留下文字紀錄。
此外,目前還有一些尚未破解的青銅時代文字紀錄,包括:
更早期書寫的符號,如中國河南賈湖契刻符號、東南歐溫查符號與迪斯皮里奧圖章上的記號,都被認為是原始文字的一種,只能表達有限的概念,而無法像真實的書寫系統記錄作者的語言。
時間 | 語言 | 證據 | 註釋 |
---|---|---|---|
約前2690年 | 埃及語 | 在伯里布森(埃及第二王朝)墓穴中發現的埃及象形文字。地點位於埃及新河谷省烏姆·卡伯。[7] | 「原象形文字」(proto-hieroglyphic)大約在前3300年(奈加代三期文化,參見阿拜多斯、那爾邁調色板)出現。 |
前26世紀 | 蘇美語 | 《舒魯帕克的指示》,凱什神廟讚美詩與其他在舒魯帕克與阿布·薩拉比克發現的楔形文字(早王朝時期)[8][9] | 烏魯克時期自約前3500年(參見基什石灰岩板);為烏魯克 and 烏爾 from 約前2900年。 |
約前2400年 | 迦南語 | 烏納斯金字塔中刻有保護閃米特人的咒語[10][11] | Initial attempts at deciphering the texts failed due to Egyptologists mistaking the Semitic spells for Egyptian, thus rendering them unintelligible. |
約前2400年 | 阿卡德語 | A few dozen pre-Sargonic texts from Mari and other sites in northern Babylonia[12] | Some proper names attested in Sumerian texts at Tell Harmal from about 2800 BC.[13] Fragments of the Legend of Etana at Tell Harmal 約2600 BC.[14] |
約前2400年 | 埃勃拉語 | 埃勃拉文書[15] | |
約前2250年 | 埃蘭語 | 艾萬王朝與阿卡德帝國納拉姆辛簽訂的和平契約[16][17] | |
前21世紀 | 胡里安語 | Temple inscription of Tish-atal in Urkesh[18] | |
約前1700年 | 赫梯語 | 有關赫梯國王阿尼塔的西臺楔形文字[19] | 用亞述文字寫成的部分赫梯語詞彙與名稱在灰山被找到,其年代大約在前19世紀。[19] |
前16世紀 | 帕拉語 | 赫梯語文句 CTH 751–754[20] | |
約前1450年 | 邁錫尼希臘語 | 克諾索斯的線形文字B碑文[21][22][23] | 主要是行政名單,但也有一些完整的句子。[24] |
約前1400年 | 盧維語 | 以盧維語聖書體書寫的紀念碑銘文,以及盧維語楔形文字的泥板。發現余哈圖沙檔案室。[25] | 自前18世紀起在圖章上出現單獨的象形文字。[25] |
約前1400年 | 哈梯語 | 赫梯語文句 CTH 725–745 | |
約前1300年 | 烏加里特語 | 烏加里特發現的泥板[26] | |
約前1200年 | 上古漢語 | 商朝武丁時期的甲骨文金文[27][28][29] |
-
武丁時期刻有占卜紀錄的牛骨刻辭,約約前1200年。
公元前1千紀
[編輯]已知最早的字母系統銘文發現於Serabit el-Khadim(約前1500年), 其記錄得似乎是某種西北閃米特語支的語言,但至今只有數個單詞被破解。 在鐵器時代早期,字母系統開始向近東和歐洲南部傳播,且隨着婆羅米系文字的出現,印度語言在公元前300年開始被記錄下來。
對伊比利亞語、塔爾提索斯語、加拉提亞語、色雷斯語和梅薩比語等語言只有零碎的證據[31] The North Picene language of the Novilara Stele from 約600 BC has not been deciphered.[32] The earliest examples of the Central American Isthmian script date from 約500 BC, but a proposed decipherment remains controversial.[33]
時間 | 語言 | 證據 | 註釋 |
---|---|---|---|
約前1000年 | 腓尼基語 | 亞希蘭墓誌銘[34] | |
前10世紀 | 亞拉姆語 | 來自亞蘭城邦的皇家銘文[35] | |
前10世紀 | 希伯來語或腓尼基語 | 基色曆[36] | 希伯來語當時使用的是略微修改過的腓尼基字母,因此無法明確知道其書寫的語言是哪一種。 |
約前850年 | 亞捫語 | 亞捫堡壘銘文[37] | |
約前840年 | 摩押語 | 米沙石碑 | |
約前800年 | 弗里吉亞語 | 戈爾迪昂的原始弗里吉亞語銘文[38] | |
前8世紀 | 賽伯伊語(古南部阿拉伯語) | 主要為也門的牛耕式轉行書寫法銘文[39] | |
約前700年 | 伊特拉斯坎語 | proto-Corinthian vase found at Tarquinia[40] | |
前7世紀 | 拉丁語 | Vetusia Inscription and Fibula Praenestina[41] | |
約前600年 | 呂底亞語 | 薩第斯出土的銘文[25] | |
約前600年 | 卡里亞語 | inscriptions from Caria and Egypt[25] | |
約前600年 | 法利斯克語 | Ceres inscription found at Falerii[42] | |
前6世紀早期 | 翁布里亞語 | 雙耳噴口杯手柄上的文字,發現地在托爾法附近[43] | |
約前550年 | 泰馬語 | Esk 168和177[44] | The Taymanitic script is mentioned in an 8th century BC document from Carchemish.[45] |
約前550年 | 南皮賽恩語 | 卡佩斯特拉諾[46] | |
前6世紀晚期 | 威尼托語 | 在埃斯泰發現的碑文 | |
約前500年 | 古波斯語 | 貝希斯敦銘文 | |
約前500年 | 南阿爾卑高盧語 | 科莫的CO-48銘文與韋爾賈泰的VA-6銘文[47][48] | Inscriptions from the early 6th century consist of isolated names. |
約前300年 | 奧斯坎語 | Iovilae from Capua[49] | Coin legends date from the late 5th century BC.[50] |
前3世紀 | 高盧語 | Transalpine Gaulish inscriptions in Massiliote Greek script[51] | |
前3世紀 | 沃爾西語 | Tabula Veliterna[52] | |
約前260年 | 中古印度-雅利安語(普拉克里特諸語言) | 阿育王詔書[53][54] | Pottery inscriptions from Anuradhapura have been dated 約400 BC.[55][56] |
約前200年 | 泰米爾語 | cave inscriptions and potsherds in Tamil Nadu[57][58] | 5th century BC inscriptions on potsherds found in Kodumanal, Porunthal and Palani have been claimed as Tamil-Brahmi,[59][60] but this is disputed.[61] |
約前146年 | East Numidian | Punic-Libyan Inscription at Dougga[62] | |
前2世紀 | 麥羅埃語 | graffiti on the temple of Amun at Dukki Gel, near Kerma[63] | |
約100 BC | 凱爾特伊比利亞語 | 博托里塔牌匾 | |
前1世紀 | 安息語 | ostraca at Nisa and Qumis[64] | |
前1世紀 | 梵語 | 達納的阿約提亞銘文與哈提巴達哥孫迪銘文(兩者都位於奇陶爾加爾附近)[65] | The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman (shortly after 150 AD) is the oldest long text.[66] |
公元1千紀
[編輯]Late Antiquity, we have for the first time languages with earliest records in manuscript tradition (as opposed to epigraphy). Thus, Old Armenian is first attested in the Armenian Bible translation.
The Vimose inscriptions (2nd and 3rd centuries) in the Elder Futhark runic alphabet appear to record Proto-Norse names. Some scholars interpret the Negau helmet inscription (約100 BC) as a Germanic fragment.
時間 | 語言 | 證據 | 註釋 |
---|---|---|---|
約150年 | Bactrian | Rabatak inscription | |
約200年 | Proto-Norse | inscription NITHIJO TAWIDE on shield grip from the Illerup Ådal weapon deposit | Single Proto-Norse words are found on the Øvre Stabu spearhead (second half of the 2nd century) and the Vimose Comb (c. 160). |
292年 | Mayan | Stela 29 from Tikal[67] | A brief undeciphered inscription at San Bartolo is dated to the 3rd century BC.[68] |
312年–313年 | Sogdian | Ancient Letters, found near Dunhuang[69] | |
328年 | Arabic | Namara inscription | |
約350年 | Ge'ez | inscriptions of Ezana of Aksum[70] | |
約350年 | Cham | Đông Yên Châu inscription found near Tra Kiêu[71] | |
4世紀 | Gothic | Gothic Bible, translated by Wulfila[72] | A few problematic Gothic runic inscriptions may date to the early 4th century. |
約430年 | Georgian | Bir el Qutt inscriptions[73] | |
約450 | Kannada | Halmidi inscription[74] | Kavirajamarga (約850) is the oldest literary work.[74] |
約500年 | Armenian | inscription at the Tekor Basilica[75] | Saint Mesrob Mashtots is traditionally held to have translated an Armenian Bible in 434. |
約510年 | Old Dutch | formula for freeing a serf in the Malbergse Glossen on the Salic law[76] | A word in the mid-5th century Bergakker inscription yields the oldest evidence of Dutch morphology, but there is no consensus on the interpretation of the rest of the text.[76] |
6世紀 | Tocharian | manuscripts from Kucha, Karasahr and Dunhuang[77] | Some Tocharian names and words have been found in Prakrit documents from Krorän dated 約300 AD. |
second half of 6th century | Old High German | Pforzen buckle[78] | |
約575年 | Telugu | Erragudipadu inscription[74] | Telugu place names are found in Prakrit inscriptions from the 2nd century AD.[74] |
591年 | Korean | Sinseong (新城) Stele in Namsan (Gyeongju)[79][80] | |
611年 | Khmer | Angkor Borei inscription | |
約650年 | Old Japanese | mokkan wooden tablets[81] | Poems in the Kojiki (711–712) and Nihon Shoki (720) have been transmitted in copied manuscripts. |
約650年–700年 | Old Udi | Sinai palimpsest M13 | |
約683年 | Old Malay | Kedukan Bukit Inscription | |
7世紀 | Tumshuqese and Khotanese Saka | manuscripts mainly from Dunhuang[82] | Some fragments of Khotanese Saka have been dated to the 5th and 6th centuries |
7世紀 | Beja | ostracon from Saqqara[83][84] | |
7世紀晚期 | Pyu | Hpayahtaung funeral urn inscription of kings of Sri Ksetra | |
約700年 | Old English | runic inscription on the Franks Casket | The Undley bracteate (5th century) and West Heslerton brooch (約650) have fragmentary runic inscriptions. |
732年 | Old Turkic | Orkhon inscriptions | |
約750年 | Old Irish | Würzburg glosses[85] | Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century consist of personal names, patronymics and/or clan names.[86][87] |
約765年 | Old Tibetan | Lhasa Zhol Pillar[88] | Dated entries in the Tibetan Annals begin at 650, but extant manuscripts postdate the Tibetan occupation of Dunhuang in 786.[89] |
769年 | Old Hindi | Dohakosh by Saraha | |
8世紀晚期 | Breton | Praecepta medica (Leyden, Codex Vossianus Lat. F. 96 A)[90] | A botanical manuscript in Latin and Breton |
約750年–900年 | Old Frisian | Westeremden yew-stick | |
約800年 | Old Norse | runic inscriptions | |
804年 | Javanese | initial part of the Sukabumi inscription[91] | |
9世紀 | Malayalam | Rajasekhara inscription at Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple[58] | Ramacaritam (12th century) is the oldest literary work.[58] |
9世紀 | Old Welsh | Cadfan Stone (Tywyn 2)[92] | |
約842年 | 古法語 | 斯特拉斯堡誓言 | |
約862年 | 古教會斯拉夫語 | 由西里爾和美多德翻譯的宗教文學 | 語言主要在普雷斯拉夫文學學校和奧赫里德文學學校發展,這是保加利亞第一帝國的兩個主要文化中心。 |
882年 | 峇里語 | 注有日期的皇家銘文[93] | |
約900年 | 古奧克語 | 《Tomida femina》 | |
約959年–974年 | 萊昂語 | 《Nodicia de Kesos》 | |
約960年–963年 | 意大利語 | 《Placiti Cassinesi》[94] | The Veronese Riddle (約800) is considered a mixture of Italian and Latin.[95] |
986年 | 契丹語 | 耶律延寧墓誌 | |
10世紀晚期 | 孔卡尼語/馬拉提語 | 斯拉瓦納貝拉戈的巴霍巴利雕像上的銘文 [96] | inscription on Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola are in Devanagari script, but the language has been in dispute between Marathi and Konkani scholars.[97][98] |
公元1000年–1500年
[編輯]時間 | 語言 | 證據 | 註釋 |
---|---|---|---|
972年–1093年 | 斯洛文尼亞語 | 佛萊辛手稿 | |
約1000年 | 古東斯拉夫語 | 《諾夫哥羅德法典》[99] | |
約1000年 | 巴斯克語、亞拉岡語 | 《艾米利亞努斯註釋》 | |
約1028年 | 加泰隆語 | Jurament Feudal[100] | |
11世紀 | 莫扎拉布語 | kharjas appended to Arabic and Hebrew poems[101] | Isolated words are found in glossaries from the 8th century.[102] |
約1100年 | 克羅地亞語 | 巴許卡碑文 | |
約1100年 | 奧塞梯語 | 澤蘭屈克銘文(Zelančuk inscription)[103] | |
約1106年 | 愛爾蘭語 | Lebor na hUidre ("Book of the Dun Cow") | |
1113年 | 緬甸語 | Myazedi inscription | |
1114年 | 尼瓦爾語 | palm-leaf manuscript from Uku Baha, Patan[104] | |
1160年–1170年 | 中古荷蘭語 | Het Leven van Sint Servaes ("Life of Saint Servatius") by Heinrich von Veldeke[105] | |
約1175年 | 加利西亞-葡萄牙語 | 《Notícia de Fiadores》[106] | The Notícia de Torto and the will of Afonso II of Portugal, dated 1214, are often cited as the first documents written in Galician-Portuguese.[107] A date prior to 1175 has been proposed for the Pacto dos Irmãos Pais.[108] |
1186年–1190年 | 塞爾維亞語 | 米羅斯拉夫福音書 | |
1189年 | 波斯尼亞語 | 班·布林憲章 | |
1192年 | 古匈牙利語 | 《葬禮的佈道與禱詞》 | There are isolated fragments in earlier charters such as the charter of Veszprém (約1000) and the charter of Tihany (1055). |
約1200年 | 西班牙語 | 《熙德之歌》 | Previously the Glosas Emilianenses and the Nodicia de kesos were considered the oldest texts in Spanish; however, later analyses concluded them to be Aragonese and Leonese, respectively.[109] |
約1200年 | 芬蘭語支 | 白樺樹皮信件第292號 | |
約1200年–1230年 | 捷克語 | founding charter of the Litoměřice chapter | |
1224年–1225年 | 蒙古語 | Genghis stone | |
13世紀早期 | 旁遮普語 | poetry of Fariduddin Ganjshakar | |
13世紀早期 | 康和語 | prophesy in the cartulary of Glasney College[110] | A 9th century gloss in 波愛修斯的《哲學的慰藉》; ud rocashaas is controversially interpreted.[111][112] |
約1250年 | 喀什米爾語 | Mahanayakaprakash ("Light of the supreme lord") by Shitikantha[113] | |
約1270年 | Old Polish | Book of Henryków | |
1272年 | Yiddish | blessing in the Worms mahzor | |
約1274年 | Western Lombard | Libro de le tre scritture, by Bonvesin de la Riva | |
約1292年 | Thai | Ramkhamhaeng stele | Some scholars argue that the stele is a forgery. |
13世紀 | Tigrinya | a text of laws found in Logosarda | |
約1300年 | Batak | ||
約1350年 | Oghuz Turkic (including Azeri and Ottoman Turkish) | Imadaddin Nasimi | |
約1369年 | Old Prussian | Basel Epigram[114] | |
1372年 | Komi | Abur inscriptions | |
15世紀早期 | Bengali | poems of Chandidas and Vidyapati[115] | The 10th-century Charyapada are written in a language ancestral to Bengali, Assamese and Oriya.[115] |
約1440年 | Vietnamese | Quốc âm thi tập[116] | Isolated names in Chữ nôm date from the early 13th century. |
1462年 | Albanian | Formula e Pagëzimit, a baptismal formula in a letter of Archbishop Pal Engjëll | Some scholars interpret a few lines in the Bellifortis text (1405) as Albanian.[117] |
約1470年 | Finnish | single sentence in a German travel journal[118] | The first printed book in Finnish is Abckiria (1543) by Mikael Agricola. |
約1470年 | Maltese | Il Cantilena | |
1485年 | Yi | bronze bell inscription in Dafang County, Guizhou[119] | |
15世紀 | Tulu | inscriptions in an adaptation of Malayam script[120] |
1500年以後
[編輯]時間 | 語言 | 證據 | 註釋 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
約1503年 | Lithuanian | hand-written Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary and Creed[121] | Katekizmas (1547) by Martynas Mažvydas was the first printed book in Lithuanian. | |
1517年 | Belarusian | Psalter of Francysk Skaryna | ||
1521年 | Romanian | Neacșu's Letter | Cyrillic orthographic manual of Constantin Kostentschi from 1420 documents earlier written usage.[122] Four 16th century documents, namely Codicele Voronetean, Psaltirea Scheiana, Psaltirea Hurmuzachi and Psaltirea Voroneteana, are arguably copies of 15th century originals.[123] | |
1530年 | 拉脫維亞語 | 尼可拉斯·拉姆(Nicholas Ramm)對易手讚美詩的翻譯 | ||
1535年 | 愛沙尼亞語 | Wanradt-Koell的教義問答 | ||
1536年 | 現代葡萄牙語 | Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa by Fernão de Oliveira. | by convention.[124] | |
1550年 | 古典納瓦特爾語 | Doctrina cristiana en lengua española y mexicana[125] | The Breve y mas compendiosa doctrina cristiana en lengua mexicana y castellana (1539) was possibly the first printed book in the New World. No copies are known to exist today.[125] | |
約1550年 | 標準荷蘭語 | Statenbijbel | The Statenbijbel is commonly accepted to be the start of Standard Dutch, but various experiments were performed around 1550 in Flanders and Brabant. Although none proved to be lasting they did create a semi-standard and many formed the base for the Statenbijbel. | |
1554年 | 瓦斯特克語 | grammar by Andrés de Olmos | ||
1557年 | 剛果語 | a catechism[126] | ||
1561年 | 羅塞尼亞語 | 佩列索普尼察亞 | ||
1593年 | 他加祿語 | 《基督教教義》 | ||
1600年 | 布吉語 | |||
約1610年 | Manx | 《公禱書》[127] | ||
1619年 | Pite Sami | primer and missal by Nicolaus Andreaus[128] | Early literary works were mainly based on dialects underlying modern Ume Sami and Pite Sami. First grammar and dictionary in 1738. | |
1639年 | Guarani | Tesoro de la lengua guaraní by Antonio Ruíz de Montoya | ||
約1650年 | 尤比克語、阿布哈茲語、阿迪格語和明格列爾語 | 愛維亞·瑟勒比的《旅遊之書》[129] | ||
1651年 | Pashto | copy of Xayru 'l-bayān in the library of the University of Tübingen[130] | The Pata Khazana, purporting to date from the 8th century, is considered by most scholars to be a forgery.[130] | |
1693年 | Tunisian Arabic | copy of a Tunisian poem written by Sheykh Hassan el-Karray [131] | Before 1700, lyrics of songs were not written in Tunisian Arabic but in Classical Arabic. Even though Tunisian Arabic existed before, it was only used orally.[131] | |
約1695年 | Seri | grammar and vocabulary compiled by Adamo Gilg | No longer known to exist.[132] | |
17世紀 | Hausa | Riwayar Annabi Musa by Abdallah Suka[133] | ||
18世紀[134] | Língua Geral of São Paulo | Vocabulário da Língua Geral dos Índios das Américas (anonymous) | Another source is the dictionary by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1867) and the vocabulary (1936) by José Joaquim Machado de Oliveira. The language is now extinct. | |
1728年 | Northern Sami | Catechism | An early wordlist was published in 1589 by Richard Hakluyt. First grammar in 1743 | |
1728年 | Swahili | Utendi wa Tambuka | ||
1736年 | Greenlandic | Grönländische Grammatica by Paul Egede[135] | A poor-quality wordlist was recorded by John Davis in 1586.[136] | |
1743年 | Chinese Pidgin English | sentence recorded in Macau by George Anson[137] | ||
1788年 | Sydney language | notebooks of William Dawes[138][139] | ||
1800年 | Inuktitut | "Eskimo Grammar" by Moravian missionaries[135] | A list of 17 words was recorded in 1576 by Christopher Hall, an assistant to Martin Frobisher.[135][136] | |
1806年 | Tswana | Heinrich Lictenstein – Upon the Language of the Beetjuana | The first complete Bible translation was published in 1857 by Robert Moffat. | |
1819年 | Cherokee | Sequoyah's Cherokee syllabary | ||
1820年 | Maori | grammar by Thomas Kendall and Samuel Lee | Kendal began compiling wordlists in 1814. | |
1820年 | Aleut | description by Rasmus Rask | A short word list was collected by James King in 1778. | |
1823年 | Xhosa | John Bennie's Xhosa reading sheet | Complete Bible translation 1859 | |
約 1833年 | Vai | Vai syllabary created by Momolu Duwalu Bukele. | ||
1833年 | Sotho | reduced to writing by French missionaries Casalis and Arbousset | First grammar book 1841 and complete Bible translation 1881 | |
1837年 | Zulu | Incwadi Yokuqala Yabafundayo | First grammar book 1859 and complete Bible translation 1883 | |
1839年 | Lule Sami | pamphlet by Lars Levi Laestadius | Dictionary and grammar by Karl Bernhard Wiklund in 1890-1891 | |
1844年 | Afrikaans | letters by Louis Henri Meurant (published in Eastern Cape newspaper – South Africa) | Followed by Muslim texts written in Afrikaans using Arabic alphabet in 1856. Spelling rules published in 1874. Complete Bible published 1933. | |
1845年 | Santali | A Santali Primer by Jeremiah Phillips[140] | ||
1851年 | Sakha (Yakut) | Über die Sprache der Jakuten, a grammar by Otto von Böhtlingk | Wordlists were included in Noord en Oost Tartarije (1692) by Nicolaas Witsen and Das Nord-und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (1730) by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg. | |
1854年 | Inari Sami | grammar by Elias Lönnrot | Primer and catechism published in 1859. | |
1856年 | Gamilaraay | articles by William Ridley[141] | Basic vocabulary collected by Thomas Mitchell in 1832. | |
1872年 | Venda | reduced to writing by the Berlin Missionaries | First complete Bible translation 1936 | |
1878年 | Kildin Sami | Gospel of Matthew | ||
1882年 | Mirandese | O dialecto mirandez by José Leite de Vasconcelos[142] | The same author also published the first book written in Mirandese: Flores mirandezas (1884)[143] | |
1884年 | 斯科爾特薩米語 | 以西里爾字母寫的《馬太福音》 | ||
1885年 | 達凱勒語 | 巴克維爾監獄文本(Barkerville Jail Text),該文本由當時剛剛創制的凱勒爾音節文字
紀錄,以鉛筆書寫在一塊板子上 || 雖然由母語人士書寫的第一份文本在1885年寫成,但該語言的首次文字紀錄是1793年記錄的單詞列表,由探險家亞歷山大·麥肯齊。 | ||
1885年 | 莫圖語 | 威廉·喬治·拉韋斯編輯的語法書 | ||
1886年 | 古古伊米蒂爾語 | notes by Johann Flierl, Wilhelm Poland and Georg Schwarz, culminating in Walter Roth's The Structure of the Koko Yimidir Language in 1901.[144][145] | A list of 61 words recorded in 1770 by James Cook and Joseph Banks was the first written record of an Australian language.[146] | |
1891年 | Galela | grammatical sketch by M.J. van Baarda[147] | ||
1893年 | Oromo | translation of the New Testament by Onesimos Nesib, assisted by Aster Ganno | ||
1903年 | Lingala | grammar by Egide de Boeck | ||
1905年 | Istro-Romanian | Calendaru lu rumeri din Istria by Andrei Glavina[148] | Compilation of Istro-Romanian popular words, proverbs and stories. | |
約1940年 | Kamoro | materials by Peter Drabbe[147] | A Kamoro wordlist recorded in 1828 by Modera and Müller, passengers on a Dutch ship, is the oldest record of any of the Papuan languages.[147][149] | |
1968年 | 南恩德貝勒語 | small booklet published with praises of their kings and a little history | 新約聖經於1986年翻譯完成;舊約的翻譯仍在進行中。 | |
1982年 | 古尼揚迪語 | survey by William McGregor[150] |
依語系排列
[編輯]依較大的語言家族出現的時間排列:
- 亞非語系:大約從前27世紀
- 胡里安-烏拉爾圖語:約前21世紀
- 印歐語系:大約從前17世紀
- 漢藏語系:約前1200年
- 達羅毗荼語系: 約前200年(泰米爾語)
- 馬雅語系:3世紀
- 南島語系:3世紀(占語)
- 南高加索語系:5世紀(格魯吉亞語)
- 東北高加索語系:7世紀(烏第語)
- 南亞語系:7世紀(高棉語)
- 突厥語族:8世紀(古代突厥語)
- 日本-琉球語系:8世紀(上古日語)
- 尼羅-撒哈拉語系:8世紀(古努比亞語)
- 巴斯克語:約1000年
- 烏拉爾語系:12世紀
- 蒙古語:13世紀(明顯與10世紀有文字紀錄的契丹語有關聯)
- 壯侗語族:13世紀(泰語)
- 猶他-阿茲特克語系:16世紀(古典納瓦特爾語)
- 克丘亞諸語言:16世紀
- 尼日-剛果語系的班圖語支:16世紀(剛果語)
- 西北高加索語系:17世紀(阿布哈茲語、阿迪格語、尤比克語)
- 澳大利亞原住民語言:18世紀
- 易洛魁語系:19世紀(切羅基語)
- 巴布亞諸語言:19世紀(莫圖語)
- 苗瑤語系:20世紀
人工語言
[編輯]時間 | 語言 | 文件 | 註釋 |
---|---|---|---|
1879年 | 沃拉普克語 | 由約翰·馬丁·施萊爾構建 | |
1887年 | 世界語 | 《第一本書》 | 由拉扎魯·柴門霍夫構建 |
1907年 | 伊多語 | 基於世界語修改而成 | |
1917年 | 昆雅語 | 由J·R·R·托爾金構建 | |
1928年 | 諾維亞語 | 由奧托·葉斯柏森構建 | |
1935年 | 索納語 | 《索納語,一種輔助性的中立語言》 (Sona, an auxiliary neutral language) |
由肯尼斯·塞里特構建 |
1943年 | 因特格羅沙語 | 後改成格羅沙語 | 由蘭斯洛特·霍格本構建 |
1951年 | 因特語 | 因特語-英語字典 | 由國際輔助語協會構建 |
1955年 | Loglan | 由詹姆士·庫克·布朗構建 | |
1984年 | 克林貢語 | 《星艦迷航記III:石破天驚》 | 由馬爾克·奧克蘭德 |
1987年 | Lojban | 基於Loglan修改而成,由邏輯語言小組(Logical Language Group)構建 | |
2005年–06年 | 納美語 | 《阿凡達》 | 由保羅·弗朗莫與詹姆斯·卡麥隆構建 |
2009年 | 多斯拉克語 | 《權力遊戲》 | 由喬治·R·R·馬丁和大衛·J·彼得森構建 |
參見
[編輯]參考
[編輯]- 參考資料
- ^ Jamison, Stephanie W. Sanskrit. Woodward, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 6–32. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. pp. 6–7.
- ^ Witzel, Michael. The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu12312 (PDF). Witzel, Michael (編). Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 1997: 257–348. ISBN 978-1-888789-03-4. p. 259.
- ^ Hale, Mark. Avestan. Woodward, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 101–122. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
- ^ Woodard (2008),第2頁.
- ^ Linear A – Undeciphered Writing System of the Minoans. Archaeology.about.com. 2013-07-13 [2013-09-17].
- ^ Woodard (2008),第3頁.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Allen, James P. The Ancient Egyptian Language. Cambridge University Press. 2003: 2. ISBN 978-1-107-66467-8.
- ^ Hayes, John. A Manual of Sumerian: Grammar and Texts. Malibu, CA.: UNDENA. 1990: 268–269. ISBN 978-0-89003-197-1.
- ^ Woods (2010),第87頁.
- ^ Earliest Semitic Text Revealed In Egyptian Pyramid Inscription. ScienceDaily. [2019-01-06] (英語).
- ^ לחשים בקדם־כנענית בכתבי הפירמידות: סקירה ראשונה של תולדות העברית באלף השלישי לפסה"נ | האקדמיה ללשון העברית. hebrew-academy.org.il. 2013-05-21 [2019-01-06] (he-IL).
- ^ Hasselbach, Rebecca. Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 2005: 8. ISBN 978-3-447-05172-9.
- ^ Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 31–71.
- ^ Clay, Albert T. Atrahasis: An Ancient Hebrew Deluge Story. Book Tree. 2003: 34. ISBN 978-1-58509-228-4.
- ^ Huehnergard, John; Woods, Christopher. Akkadian and Eblaite. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 83–145. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2.
- ^ Stolper, Matthew W. Elamite. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 47–82. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2.
- ^ Potts, D.T. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge University Press. 1999: 111. ISBN 978-0-521-56496-0.
- ^ van Soldt, Wilfred H. The adaptation of Cuneiform script to foreign languages. De Voogt, Alexander J.; Finkel, Irving L. (編). The Idea of Writing: Play and Complexity. BRILL. 2010: 117–128. ISBN 978-90-04-17446-7.
- ^ 19.0 19.1 Watkins, Calvert. Hittite. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 6–30. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
- ^ Melchert, H. Craig. Palaic. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 40–45. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
- ^ Shelmerdine, Cynthia. Where Do We Go From Here? And How Can the Linear B Tablets Help Us Get There? (PDF). [2008-03-27]. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2011-10-03).
- ^ Olivier (1986),第377f頁.
- ^ Clay tablets inscribed with records in Linear B script. British Museum. [7 May 2015]. (原始內容存檔於2015-05-04).
- ^ Bennett, Emmett L. Aegean scripts. Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (編). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. 1996: 125–133. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
- ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Baldi (2002),第30頁.
- ^ Pardee, Dennis. Ugaritic. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 5–35. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9.
- ^ Bagley (1999),第181–182頁.
- ^ Keightley (1999),第235–237頁.
- ^ DeFrancis, John. Chinese. Visible Speech. The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems. University of Hawaii Press. 1989: 89–121. ISBN 978-0-8248-1207-2.
- ^ Lettre du grand-prêtre Lu'enna. Louvre. [16 September 2018].
- ^ Woodard (2008),第4, 9, 11頁.
- ^ Woodard (2008),第4頁.
- ^ Robinson, Andrew. Lost Languages: The Enigma of the World's Undeciphered Scripts. Thames & Hudson. 2008: 263. ISBN 978-0-500-51453-5.
- ^ Cook, Edward M. On the Linguistic Dating of the Phoenician Ahiram Inscription (KAI 1). Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 1994, 53 (1): 33–36. JSTOR 545356. doi:10.1086/373654.
- ^ Creason, Stuart. Aramaic. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 108–144. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9.
- ^ Silvan, Daniel. The Gezer Calendar and Northwest Semitic Linguistics. Israel Exploration Journal. 1998, 48 (1/2): 101–105. JSTOR 27926502.
- ^ Fulco, William J. The Ammn Citadel Inscription: A New Collation. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 1978, 230 (230): 39–43. JSTOR 1356612. doi:10.2307/1356612.
- ^ Brixhe, Claude. Phrygian. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 69–80. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
- ^ Nebes, Norbert; Stein, Peter. Ancient South Arabian. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 145–178. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9.
- ^ F. W. Walbank, A. E. Astin, M. W. Frederiksen (編). Part 2 of The Cambridge Ancient History: The Hellenistic World. Cambridge University Press. 1990: 12. ISBN 978-0-521-23446-7.
- ^ Clackson, James. A Companion to the Latin Language. John Wiley & Sons. 2011: 13. ISBN 978-1-4443-4336-6.
- ^ Bakkum, Gabriël C. L. M. The Latin dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 years of scholarship, Volume 1. University of Amsterdam Press. 2009: 393–406. ISBN 978-90-5629-562-2.
- ^ Wallace, Rex E. Recent Research on Sabellian Inscriptions. Indo-European Studies Bulletin. 1998, 8 (1): 1–9. p. 4.
- ^ Macdonald, M.C.A. Ancient North Arabian. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 179–224. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9. p. 181.
- ^ Macdonald, M.C.A. Reflections on the linguistic map of pre-Islamic Arabia (PDF). Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 2000, 11 (1): 28–79. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2000.aae110106.x.
- ^ Clackson, James; Horrocks, Geoffrey. The Blackwell History of the Latin Language. Blackwell. 2007: 49. ISBN 978-1-4051-6209-8.
- ^ Lexicon Leponticum, by David Stifter, Martin Braun and Michela Vignoli, University of Vienna.
- ^ Stifter, David. Celtic in northern Italy: Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish (PDF). 2012 [24 October 2016].
- ^ Buck, Carl Darling. A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian: With a Collection of Inscriptions and a Glossary. Boston: The Athenaeum Press. 1904: 247–248.
- ^ Buck (1904),第4頁.
- ^ Eska, Joseph F. Continental Celtic. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Europe. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 165–188. ISBN 978-0-521-68495-8.
- ^ Baldi (2002),第140頁.
- ^ Rogers, Henry. Writing Systems. Black Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-0-631-23464-7. p. 204
- ^ Pollock (2003),第60頁.
- ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha. Inscribed pots, emerging identities. Olivelle, Patrick (編). Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE. Oxford University Press. 2006: 113–143. ISBN 978-0-19-977507-1., pp. 121–122.
- ^ Coningham, R.A.E.; Allchin, F.R.; Batt, C.M.; Lucy, D. Passage to India? Anuradhapura and the Early Use of the Brahmi Script. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 1996, 6 (1): 73–97. doi:10.1017/S0959774300001608.
- ^ Zvelebil, Kamil Veith. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. BRILL. 1992: 122–123. ISBN 978-90-04-09365-2.
- ^ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Krishnamurti (2003),第22頁.
- ^ Rajan, K. Situating Iron Age moduments in South Asia: a textual and ethnographic approach. Robbins Schug, Gwen; Walimbe, Subhash R. (編). A Companion to South Asia in the Past. Wiley-Blackwell. 2016: 310–318. ISBN 978-1-119-05548-8. p. 311.
- ^ Rajan, K. Iron Age – Early Historic Transition in South India: an appraisal (PDF). Institute of Archaeology. 2014: 9.
- ^ Falk, Harry. Owner's graffiti on pottery from Tissamaharama. Zeitschrift für Archäologie Außereuropäischer Kulturen. 2014, 6: 46, with footnote 2. Falk has criticized the Kodumanal and Porunthal claims as "particularly ill-informed"; Falk argues that some of the earliest supposed inscriptions are not Brahmi letters at all, but merely misinterpreted non-linguistic Megalithic graffiti symbols, which were used in South India for several centuries during the pre-literate era.
- ^ Mausoleum of Ateban. British Museum.
- ^ Rilly, Claude; de Voogt, Alex. The Meroitic Language and Writing System. Cambridge University Press. 2012: 6. ISBN 978-1-139-56053-5.
- ^ Tafazzoli, A. Sassanian Iran: Intellectual Life, Part One: Written Works (PDF). Litvinsky, B.A (編). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, volume 3. UNESCO. 1996: 81–94. ISBN 978-92-3-103211-0, page 94.
- ^ Salomon, Richard. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. 1998: 86–87. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
- ^ Salomon (1998), p. 89.
- ^ Bricker, Victoria R. Mayab. Woodward, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 163–1922. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
- ^ Saturno, William A.; Stuart, David; Beltrán, Boris. Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala (PDF). Science. 2006, 311 (5765): 1281–1283. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1281S. PMID 16400112. doi:10.1126/science.1121745.
- ^ Henning, W. B. The Date of the Sogdian Ancient Letters. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 1948, 12 (3/4): 601–615. JSTOR 608717. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00083178.
- ^ Gragg, Gene. Ge'ez (Aksum). Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 211–237. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2.
- ^ Thurgood, Graham. From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change. University of Hawaii Press. 1999: 3. ISBN 978-0-8248-2131-9.
- ^ Jasanoff, Jay H. Gothic. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Europe. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 189–214. ISBN 978-0-521-68495-8.
- ^ Hewitt, B.G. Georgian: A Structural Reference Grammar. John Benjamins. 1995: 4. ISBN 978-90-272-3802-3.
- ^ 74.0 74.1 74.2 74.3 Krishnamurti (2003),第23頁.
- ^ Clackson, James P.T. Classical Armenian. Woodard, Roger D. (編). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. 2008: 124–144. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
- ^ 76.0 76.1 Willemyns, Roland. Dutch: Biography of a Language. Oxford University Press. 2013: 40–41. ISBN 978-0-19-932366-1.
- ^ Beekes, Robert S.P. Comparative Indo-European linguistics: an Introduction. J. Benjamins. 1995: 20. ISBN 978-90-272-2151-3.
- ^ Düwel, Klaus. Runic. Murdoch, Brian; Read, Malcolm Kevin (編). Early Germanic Literature and Culture. Boydell & Brewer. 2004: 121–147. ISBN 978-1-57113-199-7.
- ^ Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert. The Korean Language. SUNY Press. 2000: 276. ISBN 978-0-7914-4831-1.
- ^ Lee, Ki-Moon; Ramsey, S. Robert. A History of the Korean Language. Cambridge University Press. 2011: 55. ISBN 978-0-521-66189-8.
- ^ {{cite book | given = Bjarke | surname = Frellesvig | title = A History of the Japanese Language | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-521-65320-6 | page = 22 }
- ^ Emmerick, Ronald E. Khotanese and Tumshuqese. Windfuhr, Gernot (編). The Iranian languages. Routledge. 2009: 378–379. ISBN 978-0-7007-1131-4.
- ^ Browne, Gerald. Textus blemmyicus in aetatis christianae. Champaign: Stipes. 2003. ISBN 978-1-58874-275-9.
- ^ Wedekind, Klaus. More on the Ostracon of Browne's Textus Blemmyicus. Annali Dell'Università Degli Studi di Napoli l'Orientale. 2010, 70: 73–81.
- ^ McCone, Kim. A first Old Irish grammar and reader. National University of Ireland. 2005: 4. ISBN 978-0-901519-36-8.
- ^ Edwards, Nancy. The Archaeology of Early Medieval Ireland. Routledge. 2006: 103. ISBN 978-0-415-22000-2.
- ^ McManus, Damien. A Guide to Ogam. Maynooth, Co. Kildare: An Sagart. 1991: 51. ISBN 978-1-870684-17-0.
- ^ Walter, Michael L.; Beckwith, Christopher I. The Dating and Interpretation of the Old Tibetan Inscriptions. Central Asiatic Journal. 2010, 54 (2): 291–319. JSTOR 41928562.
- ^ Schaeffer, Kurtis R.; Kapstein, Matthew; Tuttle, Gray (編). Sources of Tibetan Tradition. Columbia University Press. 2013: 47. ISBN 978-0-231-13599-3.
- ^ Kerlouégan, François. Le De Excidio Britanniae de Gildas. Les destinées de la culture latine dans l'île de Bretagne au VIe siècle. Publications de la Sorbonne. 1987: 171–172. ISBN 978-2-85944-064-0 (法語).
- ^ de Casparis, J. G. Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to C. A.D. 1500, Volume 4, Issue 1. BRILL. 1975: 31. ISBN 978-90-04-04172-1.
- ^ Vousden, N. St Cadfan's Church, Tywyn. Coflein. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales. 2012 [13 October 2015].
- ^ De Casparis, J. G. Indonesian Chronology. BRILL. 1978: 25. ISBN 978-90-04-05752-4.
- ^ Geary, Patrick J. Land, Language and Memory in Europe 700–1100. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 1999, 9: 169–184. JSTOR 3679398. doi:10.2307/3679398. p. 182.
- ^ Indovinello Veronese (Italian) treccani.it
- ^ Pollock (2003),第289頁.
- ^ Kamat's Potpourri- The origin and development of the Konkani language. www.kamat.com.
- ^ Saradesāya, Manohararāya. A History of Konkani Literature: From 1500 to 1992. 2000. ISBN 9788172016647.
- ^ Pereltsvaig, Asya; Lewis, Martin W. The Indo-European Controversy. Cambridge University Press. 2015: 104. ISBN 978-1-107-05453-0.
- ^ MORAN, J. i J. A. RABELLA (ed.). Primers textos de la llengua catalana. Proa (Barcelona). 2001. ISBN 978-84-8437-156-4.
- ^ Wilhelm, James J. (編). Lyrics of the Middle Ages: An Anthology. Routledge. 2014: 227. ISBN 978-1-135-03554-9.
- ^ Sayahi, Lotfi. Diglossia and Language Contact: Language Variation and Change in North Africa. Cambridge University Press. 2014: 211. ISBN 978-0-521-11936-8.
- ^ Aronson, Howard Isaac. The Non-Slavic Languages of the USSR. Chicago Linguistic Society, University of Chicago. 1992: 242. ISBN 978-0-914203-41-4.
- ^ Malla, Kamal P. The Earliest Dated Document in Newari: The Palmleaf From Ukū Bāhāh NS 235/AD 1114. Kailash. 1990, 16 (1–2): 15–26.
- ^ Willemyns (2013), p. 50.
- ^ Documentos relativos a Soeiro Pais, Urraca Mendes, sua mulher, e a Paio Soares Romeu, seu segundo filho e Notícia de Fiadores. Torre do Tombo National Archive. 2008 [4 April 2017].
- ^ Azevedo, Milton M. Portuguese: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press. 2005: 177–178. ISBN 978-0-521-80515-5.
- ^ Agência Estado. Professor encontra primeiro texto escrito em português. Internacional. May 2002 [4 April 2017] (Portuguese).
- ^ Wolf, H.J. las glosas emilianenses, otra vez. Revista de Filología Románica. 1997, 1 (14): 597–604 [30 March 2019].
- ^ Jenner, Henry. A handbook of the Cornish language. London: David Nutt. 1904: 25.
- ^ Sims-Williams, Patrick. A New Brittonic Gloss on Boethius: ud rocashaas. Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies. 2005, 50: 77–86. ISSN 1353-0089.
- ^ Breeze, Andrew. The Old Cornish Gloss on Boethius. Notes & Queries. 2007, 54 (4): 367–368. doi:10.1093/notesj/gjm184.
- ^ Das, Sisir Kumar. A history of Indian literature, AD.500–1399: from courtly to the popular. Sahitya Akademi. 2005: 193. ISBN 978-81-260-2171-0.
- ^ Baldi (2002),第35頁.
- ^ 115.0 115.1 Thompson, Hanne-Ruth. Bengali. John Benjamins. 2012: 3. ISBN 978-90-272-3819-1.
- ^ MacLeod, Mark W.; Nguyen, Thi Dieu. Culture and customs of Vietnam. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2001: 68. ISBN 978-0-313-30485-9.
- ^ Elsie, Robert. The Bellifortis Text and Early Albanian (PDF). Zeitschrift für Balkanologie. 1986, 22 (2): 158–162.
- ^ Wulff, Christine. Zwei Finnische Sätze aus dem 15. Jahrhundert. Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher NF Bd. 2: 90–98 (German).
- ^ Zhou, Minglang; Sun, Hongkai (編). Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice since 1949. Springer. 2004: 258. ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8.
- ^ Bhat, D.N.S. Tulu. Steever, Sanford B. (編). The Dravidian Languages. Routledge. 2015: 158–177 [1998]. ISBN 978-1-136-91164-4.
- ^ Schmalstieg, Walter R. The Baltic Languages. Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (編). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. 1998: 454–479. ISBN 978-0-415-06449-1. page 459.
- ^ Istoria Romaniei in Date (1971), p. 87
- ^ Roegiest, Eugeen. Vers les sources des langues romanes: un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania. ACCO. 2006: 136. ISBN 978-90-334-6094-4.
- ^ Frias e Gouveia, Maria Carmen de. A categoria gramatical de género do português antigo ao português actual (PDF). Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto. 2005.
- ^ 125.0 125.1 Schwaller, John Frederick. A Catalogue of Pre-1840 Nahuatl Works Held by The Lilly Library. The Indiana University Bookman. 1973, 11: 69–88.
- ^ (法文) Balandier, Georges, Le royaume de Kongo du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle, Hachette, 1965, p. 58.
- ^ Russell, Paul. An Introduction to the Celtic Languages. Routledge. 1995: 28. ISBN 978-0-582-10081-7.
- ^ Korhonen, Mikko. The history of the Lapp language. Sinor, Denis (編). The Uralic Languages. Brill. 1988: 264–287. ISBN 978-90-04-07741-6.
- ^ Gippert, Jost. The Caucasian language material in Evliya Çelebi's 'Travel Book' (PDF). Hewitt, George (編). Caucasian Perspectives. Munich: Lincom. 1992: 8–62. ISBN 978-3-92907501-4.
- ^ 130.0 130.1 MacKenzie, D.N. The Development of the Pashto Script. Akiner, Shirin; Sims-Williams, N. (編). Languages and Scripts of Central Asia. Routledge. 1997: 137–143. ISBN 978-0-7286-0272-4.
- ^ 131.0 131.1 (法文) Fakhfakh, N. (2007). Le répertoire musical de la confrérie religieuse" al-Karrâriyya" de Sfax (Tunisie) (Doctoral dissertation, Paris8).
- ^ Marlett, Stephen A. The Structure of Seri (PDF). 1981.
- ^ Philips, John Edward. Hausa in the twentieth century: an overview (PDF). Sudanic Africa. 2004, 15: 55–84. JSTOR 25653413.
- ^ https://www.unicamp.br/unicamp/ju/591/registro-raro-de-lingua-paulista-e-identificado
- ^ 135.0 135.1 135.2 Nowak, Elke. The 'Eskimo language' of Labrador: Moravian missionaries and the description of Labrador Inuttut 1733–1891. Études/Inuit/Studies. 1999, 23 (1/2): 173–197. JSTOR 42870950.
- ^ 136.0 136.1 Nielsen, Flemming A. J. The Earliest Greenlandic Bible: A Study of the Ur-Text from 1725. Elliott, Scott S.; Boer, Roland (編). Ideology, Culture, and Translation. Society of Biblical Literature. 2012: 113–137. ISBN 978-1-58983-706-5.
- ^ Baker, Philip; Mühlhäusler, Peter. From Business to Pidgin. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication. 1990, 1 (1): 87–116.
- ^ Troy, Jakelin. The Sydney Language Notebooks and responses to language contact in early colonial NSW (PDF). 1992.
- ^ The notebooks of William Dawes on the Aboriginal language of Sydney.
- ^ Ghosh, Arun. Sandali. Anderson, Gregory D.S. (編). The Munda Languages. Routledge. 2008: 11–98. ISBN 978-0-415-32890-6.
- ^ Austin, Peter K. The Gamilaraay (Kamilaroi) Language, northern New South Wales — A Brief History of Research (PDF). McGregor, William (編). Encountering Aboriginal languages: studies in the history of Australian linguistics. Australian National University. 2008: 37–58. ISBN 978-0-85883-582-5.
- ^ Ferreira, M. Barros. A descoberta do mirandês – Marcos principais. Sítio de l Mirandés. Lisbon: Universidade de Lisboa. (原始內容存檔於2016-03-09) (Portuguese). 無效
|deadurl=bot: unknown
(幫助) - ^ LUSA. Portugueses e espanhóis assinam protocolo para promoção das línguas mirandesa e asturiana. Expresso. 2015-06-20 (Portuguese).
- ^ Roth, Walther. North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin 2: The Structure of the Koko Yimidir Language. Brisbane: Government Printer. 1910.
- ^ Haviland, John B. Guugu Yimidhirr (PDF). Dixon, R. M. W.; Blake, Barry J. (編). Handbook of Australian Languages, Volume 1. Canberra: John Benjamins. 1979: 26–181. ISBN 978-90-272-7355-0. p. 35
- ^ Haviland, John B. A last look at Cook's Guugu Yimidhirr word list (PDF). Oceania. 1974, 44 (3): 216–232. JSTOR 40329896. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1974.tb01803.x.
- ^ 147.0 147.1 147.2 Voorhoeve, C.L. A hundred years of Papuan Linguistic Research: Western New Guinea Area (PDF). Wurm, Stephen A. (編). New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Volume 1: Papuan Languages and the New Guinea Linguistic Scene. Australian National University. 1975: 117–141.
- ^ Curtis, Ervino. La lingua, la storia, la tradizione degli istroromeni. Trieste: Associazione di Amicizia Italo-Romena Decebal: 6–13. 1992 (意大利語).
- ^ Foley, William A. The Papuan Languages of New Guinea. Cambridge University Press. 1986: 13. ISBN 978-0-521-28621-3.
- ^ McGregor, William. A Functional Grammar of Gooniyandi. John Benjamins. 1990: 26. ISBN 978-90-272-3025-6.
- 參考文獻
- Bagley, Robert, Shang Archaeology, Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (編), The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 124–231, 1999, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
- Baldi, Philip, The Foundations of Latin, Walter de Gruyter, 2002, ISBN 978-3-11-017208-9.
- Keightley, David N., The Shang: China's first historical dynasty, Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (編), The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 232–291, 1999, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
- Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju, The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-77111-5.
- Olivier, J.-P., Cretan Writing in the Second Millennium B.C, World Archaeology, 1986, 17 (3): 377–389, doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979977.
- Pollock, Sheldon, The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India, University of California Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6.
- Woodard, Roger D., Language in ancient Europe: an introduction, Woodard, Roger D. (編), The Ancient Languages of Europe, Cambridge University Press: 1–13, 2008, ISBN 978-0-521-68495-8.
- Woods, Christopher (ed.), Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond (PDF), Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010, ISBN 978-1-885923-76-9.