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  “Kaloyan”重定向至此。关于the 1963 film，请见“Kaloyan (film)”。关于the town in Bulgaria，请见“Tsar Kaloyan, Razgrad Province”。
Kaloyan
Калоян
统治1196 – 1207
加冕1196
前任Ivan Asen I
继任Boril
King of the Bulgarians and Vlachs
统治1204 – 1207
加冕8 November 1204
出生约 1170
逝世October 1207
Thessalonica
配偶Cuman princess
子嗣daughter
朝代Asen dynasty

卡洛扬（保加利亚语：Калоян；约1170年-1207年10月），或称约安尼察（保加利亚语：Йоаница），本名伊凡（保加利亚语：Иван），是保加利亚第二帝国的沙皇（1196-1207年在位）。他是1185年领导保加利亚人与弗拉赫人（瓦拉几亚人）起义反抗拜占庭帝国，成功恢复保加利亚帝国的狄奥多尔（彼得）、阿森兄弟的幼弟，12世纪80年代后期，他曾作为人质在君士坦丁堡生活数年，1196年阿森遇害后，他的哥哥狄奥多尔（彼得二世）将他召回，任命他为共治沙皇。一年以后狄奥多尔也遇害，卡洛扬独揽大权。

1201年自拜占庭帝国手中成功攻下瓦尔纳（英语：Siege of Varna (1201)）后，该城的守军和总督被捆绑起来，扔进要塞城墙的护城河中，并用泥土活埋，之后他还曾多次打败罗马人（拜占庭人），据说在此之后，卡洛扬自称“罗马人屠夫（希腊语：ῥωμαιοκτόνος）”，与拜占庭皇帝巴西尔二世（976-1025年在位）的“保加利亚屠夫（希腊语：Βουλγαροκτόνος）”的绰号相对应。仇恨卡洛扬的罗马人侮辱性地称他为“狗约翰（希腊语：σκυλοϊωάννης，约翰即其本名伊凡）”。

为了让罗马教皇承认他的帝国头衔，卡洛扬与教皇英诺森三世（1198-1216年在位）进行了通信，宣布承认教皇优先地位（英语：Papal primacy）。他实行扩张政策，与邻国拜占庭帝国、匈牙利、塞尔维亚发生冲突。1204年，匈牙利国王伊姆雷仅在教皇的要求下才允许给卡洛扬送去王冠的教皇使节过境，1204年11月8日，使节加冕卡洛扬为“保加利亚人与弗拉赫人之王”，不过卡洛扬仍自称沙皇（保加利亚语：Цар）。

1204年，进行第四次十字军东征的西欧人（“拉丁人”）攻陷君士坦丁堡，拜占庭帝国解体，卡洛扬利用这一良机进行扩张，利用当地人对十字军统治的不满，他夺取了马其顿与色雷斯的许多堡垒，1205年4月14日，他在阿德里安堡战役（英语：Battle of Adrianople (1205)）中大败拉丁帝国军队，拉丁皇帝鲍德温一世被俘，不久死去，传说其头颅被制成了酒杯。之后卡洛扬继续进攻十字军与罗马人，攻陷许多堡垒，但在1207年围攻塞萨洛尼基时神秘死去。卡洛扬无子，其侄鲍里尔（英语：Boril of Bulgaria）继位，娶其孀妻。

Early life

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Kaloyan was the younger brother of Theodor and Asen, noted as the instigators of the uprising of the Bulgarians and Vlachs[1] against the Byzantine Empire in 1185.[1] Theodor was crowned emperor and adopted the name Peter in 1185.[2] Asen became Peter's co-ruler before 1190.[3] They secured the independence of their realm with the assistance of Cuman warriors from the Pontic steppes.[4]

Kaloyan, who was still a teenager in 1188, must have been born around 1170, according to historian Alexandru Madgearu.[5] He was baptised Ivan (or John), but he was called Johannitsa ("Little Ivan") because Ivan was also the baptismal name of his elder brother Asen.[6] Kaloyan derived from the Greek expression for John the Handsome (Kallos Ioannis).[7] His Greek enemies also called him Skyloioannes ("John the Dog"), which gave rise to references to Tsar Skaloyan or Scaluian in frescos in the Dragalevtsi Monastery and the Sucevița Monastery.[8]

After the Byzantines captured Asen's wife, Kaloyan was sent as a hostage to Constantinople in exchange for her in the spring of 1188.[9][10] The date of his release is not known,[10] or said to be about 1189 when he escaped.[11] He was back in his homeland when a boyar, Ivanko, murdered Asen in Tarnovo in 1196.[10] Ivanko attempted to obtain the throne with Byzantine support, but Theodor-Peter forced him to flee to the Byzantine Empire.[12]

Reign

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Conflicts with the Byzantine Empire

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The Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates mentioned that Theodor-Peter designated Kaloyan "to assist him in his labors and share in his rule"[13] at an unspecified time.[12] Kaloyan became the sole ruler of Bulgaria after Theodor-Peter was murdered in 1197.[14][15] Shortly afterwards he attacked the Byzantine province of Thrace and launched frequent raids against it during the following months.[16] Around this time, he sent a letter to Pope Innocent III, urging him to dispatch an envoy to Bulgaria.[14][17] He wanted to persuade the pope to acknowledge his rule in Bulgaria.[14] Innocent eagerly entered into correspondence with Kaloyan because the reunification of the Christian denominations under his authority was one of his principal objectives.[18]

Kaloyan's leaden seal with the Bulgarian inscription "Kaloyan Tsar of the Bulgarians"

The Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos made Ivanko the commander of Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria).[15][16] Ivanko seized two fortresses in the Rhodopi Mountains from Kaloyan, but by 1198 he had made an alliance with him.[16] Cumans and Vlachs from the lands to the north of the river Danube broke into the Byzantine Empire in the spring and autumn of 1199.[19] Choniates, who recorded these events, did not mention that Kaloyan cooperated with the invaders, so it is likely that they crossed Bulgaria without his authorization.[20] Kaloyan captured Braničevo, Velbuzhd (now Kyustendil in Bulgaria), Skopje and Prizren from the Byzantines, most probably in that year, according to historian Alexandru Madgearu.[21]

Innocent III's envoy arrived in Bulgaria in late December 1199, bringing a letter from the Pope to Kaloyan.[22] Innocent stated that he was informed that Kaloyan's forefathers had come "from the City of Rome".[22] Kaloyan's answer, written in Old Church Slavonic, has not been preserved, but its content can be reconstructed based on his later correspondence with the Holy See.[23] Kaloyan styled himself "Emperor of the Bulgarians and Vlachs", and asserted that he was the legitimate successor of the rulers of the First Bulgarian Empire.[23][24] He demanded an imperial crown from the Pope and expressed his wish to put the Bulgarian Orthodox Church under the pope's jurisdiction.[24]

The Byzantines captured Ivanko and occupied his lands in 1200.[25] Kaloyan and his Cuman allies launched a new campaign against Byzantine territories in March 1201.[20] He destroyed Constantia (now Simeonovgrad in Bulgaria) and captured Varna.[24][26] He also supported the rebellion of Dobromir Chrysos and Manuel Kamytzes against Alexios III, but they were both defeated.[24][27] Roman Mstislavich, prince of Halych and Volhynia, invaded the Cumans' territories, forcing them to return to their homeland in 1201.[28] After the Cuman's retreat, Kaloyan concluded a peace treaty with Alexios III and withdrew his troops from Thrace in late 1201 or in 1202.[24][29] According to Kaloyan's letter to the Pope, Alexios III was also willing to send an imperial crown to him and to acknowledge the autocephalous (or autonomous) status of the Bulgarian Church.[24]

Imperial ambitions

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Vukan Nemanjić, ruler of Zeta, expelled his brother, Stefan, from Serbia in 1202.[30] Kaloyan gave shelter to Stefan and allowed the Cumans to invade Serbia across Bulgaria.[31] He invaded Serbia himself and captured Niš in the summer of 1203.[32] According to Madgearu he also seized Dobromir Chrysos's realm, including its capital at Prosek.[33] Emeric, King of Hungary, who claimed Belgrade, Braničevo and Niš, intervened in the conflict on Vukan's behalf.[31] The Hungarian army occupied territories which were also claimed by Kaloyan.[34] Since Vukan had already acknowledged papal primacy, Innocent III urged Kaloyan to make peace with him in September.[35] In the same month, the papal legate, John of Casamari, gave a pallium to Basil I, the head of the Bulgarian Church, confirming his rank of archbishop, but denying his elevation to the rank of patriarch.[36]

Pope Innocent III's letter to Kaloyan

Dissatisfied with the Pope's decision, Kaloyan sent a new letter to Rome, asking Innocent to send cardinals who could crown him emperor.[37][38] He also informed the Pope that Emeric of Hungary had seized five Bulgarian bishoprics, asking Innocent to arbitrate in the dispute and determine the boundary between Bulgaria and Hungary.[38] In the letter, he styled himself the "Emperor of the Bulgarians".[37] The Pope did not accept Kaloyan's claim to an imperial crown, but dispatched Cardinal Leo Brancaleoni to Bulgaria in early 1204 to crown him king.[39][40]

Kaloyan sent envoys to the crusaders who were besieging Constantinople, offering military support to them if "they would crown him king so that he would be lord of his land of Vlachia", according to Robert of Clari's chronicle.[37][41] However, the crusaders treated him with disdain and did not accept his offer.[41] The crusaders captured Constantinople on 13 April.[42] They elected Baldwin IX of Flanders emperor and agreed to divide the Byzantine Empire among themselves.[43]

The papal legate, Brancaleoni, travelled through Hungary, but he was arrested at Keve (now Kovin in Serbia) on the Hungarian–Bulgarian frontier.[44] Emeric of Hungary urged the cardinal to summon Kaloyan to Hungary and to arbitrate in their conflict.[44] Brancaleoni was only released at the Pope's demand in late September or early October.[40][45] He consecrated Basil primate of the Church of the Bulgarians and Vlachs on 7 November.[46] Next day, Brancaleone crowned Kaloyan king.[45] In his subsequent letter to the Pope, Kaloyan styled himself as "King of Bulgaria and Vlachia", but referred to his realm as an empire and to Basil as a patriarch.[45][46]

War with the Crusaders

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Taking advantage of the disintegration of the Byzantine Empire, Kaloyan captured former Byzantine territories in Thrace.[47] Initially he attempted to secure a peaceful division of the lands with the crusaders (or "Latins").[47] He asked Innocent III to prevent them from attacking Bulgaria.[48] However, the crusaders wanted to implement their treaty which divided the Byzantine territories between them, including lands that Kaloyan claimed.[41]

Kaloyan gave shelter to Byzantine refugees and persuaded them to stir up riots in Thrace and Macedonia against the Latins.[49] The refugees, according to Robert of Clari's account, also pledged they would elect him emperor if he invaded the Latin Empire.[49] The Greek burghers of Adrianople (now Edirne in Turkey) and nearby towns rose up against the Latins in early 1205.[49] Kaloyan promised that he would send them reinforcements before Easter.[50] Considering Kaloyan's cooperation with the rebels a dangerous alliance, Emperor Baldwin decided to launch a counter-attack and ordered the withdrawal of his troops from Asia Minor.[47] He laid siege to Adrianople before he could muster all his troops.[47] Kaloyan hurried to the town at the head of an army of more than 14,000 Bulgarian, Vlach and Cuman warriors.[51] A feigned retreat by the Cumans drew the heavy cavalry of the crusaders into an ambush in the marshes north of Adrianople, enabling Kaloyan to inflict a crushing defeat on them on 14 April 1205.[47][52]

Bulgaria under Kaloyan (1197–1207)

Baldwin was captured on the battlefield and died in captivity in Tarnovo.[53] Choniates accused Kaloyan of having tortured and murdered Baldwin because he "seethed with anger"[54] against the crusaders.[47][55] George Akropolites added that Baldwin's head was "cleaned of all its contents and decorated all round with ornaments"[56] to be used as a goblet by Kaloyan.[47][55] On the other hand, Baldwin's brother and successor, Henry, informed the pope that Kaloyan behaved respectfully towards the crusaders who had been captured at Adrianople.[57]

Kaloyan's troops pillaged Thrace and Macedonia after his victory over the Latins.[58] He launched a campaign against the Kingdom of Thessalonica, laying siege to Serres in late May.[59] He promised free passage to the defenders, but after their surrender he broke his word and took them captive.[60] He continued the campaign and seized Veria and Moglena (now Almopia in Greece).[33] Most inhabitants of Veria were murdered or captured on his orders.[33] Henry (who still ruled the Latin Empire as regent) launched a counter-invasion against Bulgaria in June.[61][62] He could not capture Adrianople and a sudden flood forced him to lift the siege of Didymoteicho.[61]

Kaloyan decided to take vengeance of the townspeople of Philippopolis, who had voluntarily cooperated with the crusaders.[62] With the assistance of the local Paulicians, he seized the town and ordered the murder of the most prominent burghers.[63] The commoners were delivered in chains to Vlachia (a loosely defined territory, located to the south of the lower Danube).[64] He returned to Tarnovo after a riot had broken out against him in the second half of 1205 or early 1206.[65][66] He "subjected the rebels to harsh punishments and novel methods of execution",[67] according to Choniates.[66] He again invaded Thrace in January 1206.[68] He captured Rousion (now Keşan in Turkey) and massacred its Latin garrison.[68] He then destroyed most of the fortresses along the Via Egnatia, as far as Athira (present-day Büyükçekmece in Turkey).[68] The local inhabitants were captured and forcibly relocated to the lower Danube.[68] Akropolites recorded that thereafter Kaloyan called himself "Romanslayer", with a clear reference to Basil II who had been known as the "Bulgarslayer" after his destruction of the First Bulgarian Empire.[69][70]

The massacre and capture of their compatriots outraged the Greeks in Thrace and Macedonia.[65][71] They realized that Kaloyan was more hostile to them than the Latins.[72] The burghers of Adrianople and Didymoteicho approached Henry offering their submission.[65] Henry accepted the offer and assisted Theodore Branas in taking possession of the two towns.[65] Kaloyan attacked Didymoteicho in June, but the crusaders forced him to lift the siege.[72] Soon after Henry was crowned emperor on 20 August, Kaloyan returned and destroyed Didymoteicho.[73] He then laid siege to Adrianople, but Henry forced him to withdraw his troops from Thrace.[74] Henry also broke into Bulgaria and released 20,000 prisoners in October.[75] Boniface, King of Thessalonica, had meanwhile recaptured Serres.[76]

Kaloyan concluded an alliance with Theodore I Laskaris, Emperor of Nicaea.[76][77] Laskaris had started a war against David Komnenos, Emperor of Trebizond, who was supported by the Latins.[77] He persuaded Kaloyan to invade Thrace, forcing Henry to withdraw his troops from Asia Minor.[77] Kaloyan laid siege to Adrianople in April 1207, using trebuchets, but the defenders resisted.[75] A month later, the Cumans abandoned Kaloyan's camp, because they wanted to return to the Pontic steppes, which compelled Kaloyan to lift the siege.[73][76] Innocent III urged Kaloyan to make peace with the Latins, but he did not obey.[78]

Henry concluded a truce with Laskaris in July 1207.[76][78] He also had a meeting with Boniface of Thessalonica, who acknowledged his suzerainty at Kypsela in Thrace.[76][78] However, on his way back to Thessalonica, Boniface was ambushed and killed at Mosynopolis on 4 September.[78] According to Geoffrey of Villehardouin local Bulgarians were the perpetrators and they sent Boniface's head to Kaloyan.[78] Robert of Clari and Choniates recorded that Kaloyan had set up the ambush.[79] Boniface was succeeded by his minor son, Demetrius.[80] The child king's mother, Margaret of Hungary, took up the administration of the kingdom.[80] Kaloyan hurried to Thessalonica and laid siege to the town.[79]

Death

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Kaloyan died during the siege of Thessalonica in October 1207, but the circumstances of his death are uncertain.[81] Historian Akropolites (1217/20-1282) stated that he died of pleurisy.[82][83] He also recorded a rumour claiming that Kaloyan's "death was caused by divine wrath; for it seemed to him that an armed man appeared before him in his sleep and struck his side with a spear".[83][84]

Legends about Saint Demetrius of Thessalonica's intervention on behalf of the besieged town were recorded shortly after Kaloyan's death.[82][85] Robert of Clari wrote before 1216 that the saint himself came to Kaloyan's tent and "struck him with a lance through the body",[86] causing his death.[85] Stefan Nemanjić wrote down the same legend in 1216 in his hagiography of his father, Stefan Nemanja.[85] John Staurakios, who compiled the legends of Saint Demetrius in the late 13th century, recorded that a man riding on a white horse struck Kaloyan with a lance.[87] Kaloyan, continued Staurakios, associated the attacker with Manastras, the commander of his mercenaries, who thus had to flee before Kaloyan's death.[88] The legend was depicted on the walls of more than five Orthodox churches and monasteries.[8] For instance, a fresco in the Decani Monastery depicts Saint Demetrius slaying Tsar Skaloyan.[83]

The contradictory records of Kaloyan's death gave rise to multiple scholarly theories, many of them accepting that he was murdered.[66][82] Madgearu says Kaloyan was actually murdered by Manastras, who had most probably been hired by Kaloyan's wife and nephew, Boril.[66] Historians Genoveva Cankova-Petkova and Francesco Dall'Aglia also write that Manastras killed Kaloyan, but they assume that the Greeks had persuaded him to turn against the tsar.[66]

Grave

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Kaloyan's supposed grave in the Church of the Holy Forty Martyrs in Tarnovo

The location of Kaloyan's grave is unknown.[89] According to the late 13th-century version of the Life of Saint Sava of Serbia, Kaloyan's body was embalmed and delivered to Tarnovo.[90] However, the older version of the same legend, recorded in 1254, does not mention this episode.[83] A golden ring, which was found in a grave near the Church of the Holy Forty Martyrs in Tarnovo in 1972, bears the Cyrillic inscription Kaloianov prăsten ("Kaloyan's ring").[91] Historian Ivan Dujčev stated that the ring proved that Kaloyan's remains were transferred to the church, which was built in 1230.[91] The identification of the grave as Kaloyan's burial place is controversial, because the ring bearing his name cannot be dated to before the 14th century.[91] Furthermore, the graves of all other royals who were buried in the same place are located within the church, suggesting that the ring was not owned by Kaloyan, but by one of his 14th-century namesakes.[89]

Facial reconstruction based on the skull found near Holy Forty Martyrs Church. The identification of the skull is disputed.

Based on the skull found in the same grave and associated with Kaloyan, anthropologist Jordan Jordanov reconstructed Kaloyan's face.[91]

Family

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Kaloyan's wife was a Cuman princess.[14] She gave birth to Kaloyan's only known daughter (whose name is unknown).[92] According to gossip recorded by Alberic of Trois-Fontaines, Kaloyan's wife tried to seduce the Latin Emperor Baldwin who had been imprisoned in Tarnovo.[55] However, the gossip continued, Baldwin refused her, for which she accused him of having tried to seduce her. Outraged by his wife's claim, Kaloyan had Baldwin executed and fed his corpse to the dogs.[55] Based on the story of Potiphar and his wife, the rumour is obviously unreliable, according to Madgearu.[55] After Kaloyan's death, his widow married his successor, Boril.[93] Boril gave Kaloyan's daughter in marriage to the Latin Emperor Henry in 1211.[94]

See also

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Notes

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References

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  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 Curta 2006，第358–359, 379页.
  2. ^ Vásáry 2005，第17页.
  3. ^ Fine 1994，第16页.
  4. ^ Vásáry 2005，第17–18页.
  5. ^ Madgearu 2016，第111–112页.
  6. ^ Madgearu 2016，第39页.
  7. ^ Detrez 2015，第269页.
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Madgearu 2016，第170–171页.
  9. ^ Fine 1994，第15页.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Madgearu 2016，第111页.
  11. ^ Bulgaria, I.J. Print, 1994, p.12.
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Madgearu 2016，第112页.
  13. ^ O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates (6.1.472), p. 259.
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Dimnik 2004，第266页.
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Stephenson 2000，第306页.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Madgearu 2016，第114页.
  17. ^ Stephenson 2000，第309页.
  18. ^ Sweeney 1973，第321页.
  19. ^ Madgearu 2016，第115–116页.
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Madgearu 2016，第116页.
  21. ^ Madgearu 2016，第118–119页.
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Curta 2006，第379页.
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 Curta 2006，第380页.
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 Stephenson 2000，第310页.
  25. ^ Madgearu 2016，第115页.
  26. ^ Madgearu 2016，第116–117页.
  27. ^ Treadgold 1997，第662页.
  28. ^ Fine 1994，第31–32页.
  29. ^ Fine 1994，第32页.
  30. ^ Fine 1994，第47页.
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Madgearu 2016，第124页.
  32. ^ Fine 1994，第48页.
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Madgearu 2016，第158页.
  34. ^ Madgearu 2016，第131页.
  35. ^ Fine 1994，第44–45, 48页.
  36. ^ Sweeney 1973，第321–322页.
  37. ^ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Curta 2006，第381页.
  38. ^ 38.0 38.1 Sweeney 1973，第322页.
  39. ^ Sweeney 1973，第323–324页.
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Madgearu 2016，第133页.
  41. ^ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Lock 1995，第52页.
  42. ^ Fine 1994，第62页.
  43. ^ Lock 1995，第43–51页.
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 Sweeney 1973，第324页.
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Curta 2006，第383页.
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 Madgearu 2016，第135页.
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 47.6 Fine 1994，第81页.
  48. ^ Madgearu 2016，第144页.
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Madgearu 2016，第145页.
  50. ^ Madgearu 2016，第146页.
  51. ^ Madgearu 2016，第147页.
  52. ^ Madgearu 2016，第149页.
  53. ^ Madgearu 2016，第149, 152页.
  54. ^ O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates (9.642), p. 353.
  55. ^ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 Madgearu 2016，第153页.
  56. ^ George Akropolites: The History (ch. 13.), p. 139.
  57. ^ Fine 1994，第81–82页.
  58. ^ Madgearu 2016，第156页.
  59. ^ Madgearu 2016，第157页.
  60. ^ Fine 1994，第84页.
  61. ^ 61.0 61.1 Vásáry 2005，第51页.
  62. ^ 62.0 62.1 Madgearu 2016，第159页.
  63. ^ Madgearu 2016，第159–160页.
  64. ^ Madgearu 2016，第73, 160页.
  65. ^ 65.0 65.1 65.2 65.3 Fine 1994，第85页.
  66. ^ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 66.4 Madgearu 2016，第171页.
  67. ^ O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates (9.628), p. 344.
  68. ^ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 Madgearu 2016，第160页.
  69. ^ Vásáry 2005，第54页.
  70. ^ Madgearu 2016，第162页.
  71. ^ Treadgold 1997，第714–715页.
  72. ^ 72.0 72.1 Vásáry 2005，第52页.
  73. ^ 73.0 73.1 Vásáry 2005，第53页.
  74. ^ Madgearu 2016，第161页.
  75. ^ 75.0 75.1 Madgearu 2016，第165页.
  76. ^ 76.0 76.1 76.2 76.3 76.4 Fine 1994，第87页.
  77. ^ 77.0 77.1 77.2 Treadgold 1997，第715页.
  78. ^ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 78.4 Madgearu 2016，第166页.
  79. ^ 79.0 79.1 Madgearu 2016，第167页.
  80. ^ 80.0 80.1 Lock 1995，第58页.
  81. ^ Fine 1994，第87, 91页.
  82. ^ 82.0 82.1 82.2 Fine 1994，第91页.
  83. ^ 83.0 83.1 83.2 83.3 Madgearu 2016，第170页.
  84. ^ George Akropolites: The History (ch. 13.), p. 140.
  85. ^ 85.0 85.1 85.2 Madgearu 2016，第169页.
  86. ^ The Conquest of Constantinople: Robert of Clari, p. 127.
  87. ^ Madgearu 2016，第3, 169页.
  88. ^ Madgearu 2016，第168–169页.
  89. ^ 89.0 89.1 Madgearu 2016，第173页.
  90. ^ Madgearu 2016，第169–170页.
  91. ^ 91.0 91.1 91.2 91.3 Madgearu 2016，第172页.
  92. ^ Madgearu 2016，第188页.
  93. ^ Curta 2006，第384页.
  94. ^ Madgearu 2016，第187–188页.

Sources

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Primary sources

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  • George Akropolites: The History (Translated with and Introduction and Commentary by Ruth Macrides) (2007). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921067-1.
  • O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs (Translated by Harry J. Magoulias) (1984). Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-1764-8.
  • The Conquest of Constantinople: Robert of Clari (Translated with introduction and notes by Edgar Holmes McNeal) (1996). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-8020-7823-0.

Secondary sources

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维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：Dkzzl/瓜达莱特战役
Dkzzl/瓜达莱特战役
出生于：c. 1170逝世于：October1207
统治者头衔
前任者：
Ivan Asen I 		Emperor of Bulgaria
1196–1207
与Peter II同时在任 		继任者：
Boril

Template:Bulgarian monarchs

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